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	View Edit Domain: GreenBio Title: * Body: Imagine a world in which no one goes hungry and no one is malnourished. <br /> <br /> It sounds too much to hope for when we look around the real world and see that up to half the population lacks access to a balanced diet.1,2 The best way to provide adequate supplies of essential vitamins and minerals is to eat a varied diet, including fresh fruit and vegetables, fish, and dairy products. In the West, an adequate diet can be achieved by visiting the supermarket or grocery store, but in developing countries many people subsist on monotonous diets of staple cereals, such as rice, corn, and wheat. Although they provide calories, cereal grains are poor sources of most vitamins and minerals; a diet comprised mostly from cereals will address hunger, but not malnutrition. Micronutrient deficiency diseases are therefore rife in the developing world, causing millions of needless deaths and adding to miserable socio-economic conditions.3<br /> <br /> Many strategies have been proposed to address nutrient deficiencies, including supplement distribution, fortification programs, and attempts to make crops more inherently nutritious.4 Unfortunately, such programs have had limited success: first, because they require significant funds and a good organizational infrastructure, both of which tend to be lacking in developing countries; and second, because they rely on compliance from farmers and consumers. Fortification programs have been successful in some cases, e.g., salt iodization, but these are rare exceptions and merely shift the problem onto the remaining nutrient deficiencies. Biofortification is the most ambitious approach, as it attempts to address the problem at the source. For example, the levels of several mineral nutrients in crops can be improved by including mineral salts in fertilizers. As above, however, there has only been limited success, and only when there is a good infrastructure and enough money to pay for fertilizers. This excludes a significant proportion of the most malnourished people in the world, who cannot afford the technical measures to improve the nutrient content of their own crops.<br /> <br /> A relatively new approach is to create novel crop varieties that are more nutritious, thereby removing the onus of compliance from producers and consumers alike. There is significant genetic variation in the quantity of some nutrients, so breeding crops and selecting those with higher levels of vitamins and minerals seems like a logical approach.1 Unfortunately, trying to enhance nutrient levels by conventional breeding is a very long-term venture, particularly when the aim is to transfer nutrient-rich traits into locally-adapted breeding varieties. Even if this could be achieved in a reasonable time scale, the complexity of breeding for several different nutrients at once would be insurmountable, and some nutrients are simply not present at high enough levels to make breeding a viable option. Conventional breeding is therefore a dead end when constructing a visionary strategy for generating nutritionally complete cereal crops.<br /> <br /> What can be done? An important principle of nutrition is that minerals and vitamins are very different beasts. Minerals are inorganic compounds. They cannot be synthesized from other molecules and must be obtained from the environment. To make plants rich sources of minerals, those plants must be persuaded to remove minerals from the soil and stockpile them.5 In contrast, vitamins are organic molecules that can be synthesized from basic organic compounds like sugars and amino acids, given appropriate enzymes. To make plants rich sources of vitamins, those plants must be endowed with the ability to synthesize them.4 The key is to take the part of the plant that is eaten (for cereals this would be endosperm of the seed) and modify it to increase its ability to store minerals and capacity to synthesize vitamins.<br /> <br /> The idea of metabolically engineering plants to produce high levels of vitamins is not new. Many research papers have been published that describe plants with sometimes astonishing levels of key nutrients, and there have been several widely publicized successes such as Golden Rice, containing such high levels of the vitamin A precursor ß-carotene that rice grains appear golden yellow in color.6 Although these successes have advanced the field significantly and provided hope that individual deficiency diseases can be eliminated or reduced, the enhancement of single nutrients still leaves a massive gap in the nutritional welfare of populations targeted with such crops. To avoid the disappointing yet inevitable outcome of such strategies, which could be to solve one deficiency problem only for another to arise in its absence, the focus for metabolic engineering strategies of the future should be to provide nutritionally complete crops.<br /> <br /> Nutritional completeness means that a single staple crop, such as rice or corn, would provide every single micronutrient required by the human body and at appropriate levels such that the recommended daily intake (RDI) of all micronutrients would be achieved with the typical daily consumption of grain. Given our biological complexity, it is perhaps surprising that our bodies require such a small number of preformed organic molecules: a handful of amino acids, a couple of long-chain fatty acids, and a few vitamins. We also require a total of 16 minerals, but 11 of them are required in such small amounts that deficiency is almost unheard of, leaving only five—iron, zinc, selenium, iodine, and calcium—that need to be considered in nutritional enhancement strategies. The future of metabolic engineering should be looking at ways to achieve adequate synthesis of all essential compounds in a single crop, which means tackling multiple metabolic pathways at the same time.<br /> <br /> Based on a recently developed combinatorial gene transfer system,7 we were able to enhance three vitamins—ascorbate (vitamin C), folate (vitamin B9) and ß-carotene (provitamin A)—in the endosperm of corn.8 This was achieved by expressing genes for the necessary enzymes—phytoene synthase and carotene desaturase for provitamin A, dehydroascorbate reductase for ascorbate, and GTP cyclohydrolase for folate—each under the control of a promoter sequence that ensured the genes were expressed solely in endosperm tissue. The seed kernels of the resulting corn plants contained 169-fold the normal amount of ß-carotene, 6-fold the normal amount of ascorbate, and double the normal amount of folate, which means that a single typical serving would contain the entire RDI of ß-carotene, about one fifth the RDI for ascorbate, and adequate amounts of folate. If deployed, such a crop would simultaneously address three major nutrient deficiency diseases that are prevalent in the developing world without the need for supplementation or sourcing more exotic and expensive vegetables.<br /> <br /> This is only the first step. We are already investigating the possibility of stacking even more genes in transgenic corn plants, causing the endosperm tissue to produce several other vitamins and essential amino acids, as well as encouraging it to accumulate zinc and iron from the environment.<br /> <br /> Critics argue that more should be done to diversify the diet of the world’s poorest people, but such criticism falls on deaf ears when there is no diversity to be found or it is out of the reach of impoverished people in the developing world. Nutritionally complete staple crops will provide an important short-term solution to the growing problem of global malnutrition,<br /> improving the health and wealth of subsistence farmers and in time allowing them to seek more conventional nutritional diversity.9 We hope that by aspiring to produce nutritionally complete cereal crops, we can provide a workable solution to a major global health problem and can provide it in years rather than decades or centuries.<br /> <br /> <strong>Acknowledgements</strong>: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Innovation (MICINN), Spain, (BFU2007-61413) and an ERC Advanced Grant (BIOFORCE) to PC.<br /> <br /> <strong>References</strong><br /> <br /> 1. Graham RD, Welch RM, Bouis HE (2001) Assessing micronutrient malnutrition through enhancing the nutritional quality of staple foods: principles, perspectives and knowledge gaps. Adv Agron 70, 77–142<br /> 2. FAO (2006) State of Food Insecurity in the World. FAO, Rome.<br /> 3. Timmer CP (2003) Biotechnology and food systems in developing countries. J Nutr 133:3319–3322<br /> 4. Zhu C, et al. (2007) Transgenic strategies for the nutritional enhancement of plants. Trends Plant Sci 12, 548−555<br /> 5. S. Gómez-Galera, E. Rojas, D. Sudhakar, C. Zhu, A. M. Pelacho, T. Capell, P. Christou. Critical evaluation of strategies for mineral fortification of staple food crops. Transgen Res (in press)<br /> 6. Paine JA, et al. (2005) Improving the nutritional value of golden rice through increased pro-vitamin A content. Nat Biotechnol 23, 482–487<br /> 7. Zhu C, et al. (2008) Combinatorial genetic transformation generates a library of metabolic phenotypes for the carotenoid pathway in maize. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 105, 18232–18237<br /> 8. Naqvi S, et al. (2009) Transgenic multivitamin corn through biofortification of endosperm with three vitamins representing three distinct metabolic pathways. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 106, 7762–7767<br /> 9. Christou P, Twyman RM (2004) The potential of genetically enhanced plants to address food insecurity. Nutrition Res Rev 17, 23–42<br /> <br /> Sonia Gomez-Galera, Shaista Naqvi, Gemma Farre , Georgina Sanahuja, Chao Bai,<br /> Teresa Capell, Changfu Zhu, and Paul Christou<br /> Captcha: Please Enter Code : * Time Zone: * Select the time zone Vocabularies Newsletter: Domain: Show summary in full view Input format Filtered HTML Web page addresses and e-mail addresses turn into links automatically. Lines and paragraphs break automatically. Full HTML Web page addresses and e-mail addresses turn into links automatically. Lines and paragraphs break automatically. news_filter Web page addresses and e-mail addresses turn into links automatically. More information about formatting options			Related Articles Scientists Refute Claim That Genetically Modified Corn Cause... 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